Reform Judaism (also known as Liberal Judaism or Progressive Judaism ) is a major Jewish denomination that emphasizes the evolving nature of faith, the superiority of its ethical aspects to which is ceremonial, and the belief in continuous revelation is not centered on the theophany at Mount Sinai. The liberal thread of Judaism, characterized by lesser emphasis on ritual and personal obedience, concerns the Jewish Law as non-binding and Jewish individuals as autonomous, and openness to external influences and progressive values. The origins of Reform Judaism lie in 19th-century Germany, where the original principles were formulated by Rabbi Abraham Geiger and his companions; since the 1970s, the movement has adopted a policy of inclusiveness and acceptance, inviting as much as possible to take part in its community, rather than strict theoretical clarity. Its largest center today is in North America.
The various regional branches that share this belief, including the American Union for Judaism Reform (URJ), the Movement for Reform Judaism (MRJ) and Liberal Judaism in Britain, and the Israel Movement for Progressive Reform and Judaism, all united in the International Union for Progressive Judaism. Founded in 1926, WUPJ estimates it represents at least 1.8 million people in 50 countries: nearly a million adults are registered as well as many unaffiliated people who identify with them.
Video Reform Judaism
Definition
The inherent and very important pluralism placed on individual autonomy hampers the simple definition of Reform Judaism; its various strands regard Judaism all the time as coming from a constant process of evolution. They warrant and require further modification and reject sets, beliefs, laws or fixed practices. The obvious explanation has been very challenging since the turn towards a policy that supported inclusivity ("Big Tent" in the United States) over coherent theology in the 1970s. This largely overlaps with what researchers call the transition from the "Classical" Reform to the "New" in America, which is parallel to other smaller branches around the world. This movement ceases to emphasize core principles and beliefs, focusing more on personal spiritual experience and communal participation. This shift is not accompanied by different new doctrines or by previous neglect, but with ambiguity. Leadership enables and encourages positions, ranging from selective adoption to halakhic obedience to elements approaching religious humanism.
The declining importance of the theoretical foundations, in favor of pluralism and uniformity, attracts many newcomers. It also diversified the Reformation to a level that makes it difficult to formulate a clear definition of it. Early and "Classical" Reformation is characterized by a movement away from traditional forms of Judaism combined with coherent theology; The "New Reformation" seeks, to some extent, the reincarnation of many of the previously disposed elements within the framework established during the "Classical" stage, although this very doctrinal basis becomes increasingly obscured. Critics, like Rabbi Dana Evan Kaplan, warned that the Reformation became more than a Jewish activity club, the means to show closeness to one's inheritance where even rabbis students did not have to believe in anything. specific theology or engage in any particular practice, rather than the established belief system.
Maps Reform Judaism
Theology
God
With regard to God, while some voices between spiritual leadership approach religious and even secular humanism - a growing tendency increasingly from the mid-twentieth century, both among clergy and constituents, leading to a wider and more dim definition of concepts - the movement has always formally maintained a theistic attitude, affirming the belief in a personal God.
Early Reform Thinkers in Germany adhered to this doctrine; The Pittsburgh 1885 platform describes "One God... God's idea as taught in our Scriptures" as sanctifying the Jews to be his priest. It is based on a wholly theistic understanding, although the term "God-idea" is criticized by outside critics. Likewise the Declaration of Columbus's 1937 Policy, which speaks of "One, the living God who rules the world". Even the San Francisco Centenary Perspective of 1976, drawn up at a time of great strife among Reformist theologians, upholds "the affirmation of God... The challenge of modern culture has made beliefs remain difficult for some people, yet we are grounded in our lives, personally and communally, to the reality of God. "The 1999 Pittsburgh Declaration of Principles states" the reality and the oneness of God ". British Liberal Judaism affirms "the Jewish conception of God: One and indivisible, transcendent and immanent, Creator and Sustainer."
Revelation
The basic doctrine of Reformation is the belief in continuous, or progressive, continuous revelation that is not limited to the theophany in Sinai, a decisive event in traditional interpretation. According to this view, all the scriptures of Judaism, including the Pentateuch, are written by men who, though under divine inspiration, insert their understanding and reflect on the spirit of their successive ages. All Israelites are a further link in the chain of revelation, capable of achieving new insights: religion can be renewed without having to rely on previous conventions. The head of the promulgator of this concept is Abraham Geiger, who is generally regarded as the founder of this movement. After critical research led him to regard the scriptures as human creations, with signs of historical circumstances, he abandoned the belief in his unbroken old tradition that originated from the Sinai and gradually replaced it with the idea of ​​progressive revelation.
As in other liberal denominations, this idea offers a conceptual framework for reconciling the acceptance of critical research with the preservation of trust in some form of divine communication, thus preventing division among those who can no longer accept a literal understanding of revelation. No less important, he grants to the clergy the reason for adapting, transforming and expelling traditional customs and passing conventions accepted from the Jewish Law, rooted in the orthodox concept of the explicit transmission of both scripture and oral interpretation. Although also subject to change and new understanding, the basic premise of progressive revelation persisted in the thought of the Reformation.
In the early days, this idea was strongly influenced by the philosophy of German idealism, from which its founders drew a great deal of inspiration: the belief in mankind marched to a full understanding of himself and the divine, manifested in moral progress toward perfection. This highly rationalistic view virtually identifies human reason and reason with divine action, leaving little room for direct influence by God. Geiger understood the revelation that took place through the inherent "genius" of the Israelites, and his close ally Solomon Formstecher described it as the awakening consciousness of one's spiritual consciousness. American theologian Kaufmann Kohler also speaks of Israel's "special insight", almost completely independent of direct divine participation, and British thinker Claude Montefiore, founder of Liberal Judaism, reduced revelation to "inspiration," according to intrinsic value only to the value of its contents while " the place where they found that made them inspired ". Common to all these ideas is the assertion that the present generation has a higher and better understanding of the divine will, and they can and should vigorously change and improve the teachings of religion.
In the decades around World War II, this rationalistic and optimistic theology was challenged and questioned. It was gradually replaced, primarily by Jewish existentialism Martin Buber and Franz Rosenzweig, centered on complicated personal relationships with the creator, and a more calm and dismayed view. The identification of human reason with divine inspiration is rejected for a view like Rosenzweig, which emphasizes that the only contents of revelation itself, while all derivations of it are subjective, human understanding is limited. However, while giving a higher status for historical and traditional understanding, both insist that "the revelation certainly does not give the Law" and that it contains no "finished statement of God" but, rather, that human subjectivity forms an unexpected contents from Meeting and interpreting it under its own limits. The senior Representative of postwar Reform theology of theology, Eugene Borowitz, considers theophany in postmodern terms and closely relates it to human experience and interpersonal contact. He rejected the notion of "progressive revelation" in the sense of comparing human improvement with divine inspiration, stressing that past experiences are "unique" and very important. But he claims that his ideas do not mean negating the concept of revelation experienced individually and sustained by all.
Rituals, autonomy and law
The Reform of Judaism emphasized the ethical aspect of faith as its main attribute, replacing the ceremonial. Reformers often cite the curse of the prophets for ceremonial acts, have no right intention and are committed by moral corruptors, as testimony that rites do not have inherent qualities. Geiger focused his philosophy on the teachings of the Prophet (He named his ideology "Judaism of the Prophet" in 1838), on morality and ethics as the stable core of the religion in which ritual obedience changed radically over the centuries. However, practice is seen as a means for joy and a link to the heritage of the past, and the Reformation generally argues that rituals must be retained, discarded or modified based on whether they serve this higher purpose. This attitude allows a variety of exercises both in the past and the present. In the "Classic" period, personal obedience is reduced to a little beyond everything. The postwar New Reformation gives new meaning to practical and orderly action as a means of engaging members of the congregation, leaving behind the sanitized "Classical" forms.
Another key aspect of the doctrine of the Reformation is the personal autonomy of each adherent, who can formulate his own understanding and expression of religiosity. Reformation is unique among all Jewish denominations in placing individuals as official translators of Judaism. This position was initially influenced by the Kantian philosophy and its great weight lent to personal judgment and free will. This highly individualistic attitude also proves one of the great challenges of this movement, as it inhibits the creation of clear guidelines and standards for positive participation in religious life and the definition of what is expected of the members.
The idea of ​​autonomy coincides with the gradual abandonment of traditional practices (largely ignored by most members, and the Jewish public in general, before and during the Reformation's rise) in the early stages of the movement. It was a major characteristic during the "Classical" period, when the Reformation was similar to the Protestant environment. Later, it was applied to encourage adherents to seek their own way to engage Judaism. The "New Reformation" embraces the criticism imposed by Rosenzweig and other thinkers on extreme individualism, putting greater emphasis on community and tradition. While it does not mean to assert that members are bound by an interesting authority of some kind - the notion of interference, the reigning God remains alien to the thoughts of denominations. The "New Reform" approach to the question is characterized by an attempt to reach a point between autonomy and certain levels of conformity, with a focus on the dialectical relationship between the two.
This movement never entirely abandoned halakhic (argumentation of jurisprudence), either because of the need for precedents to counter external accusations and the survival of inheritance, but has made ethical considerations or the spirit of a decisive age. factor in determining the path. The founding fathers of Germany undermined the principles behind the legalistic process, based on a belief in an unbroken tradition over the centuries that is only described and applied to new circumstances, rather than being subject to change. Rabbi Samuel Holdheim advocates a very radical attitude, arguing that the halakhic The law of the Land is the principle of the Law must be universally applied and subject to everything against current norms and needs, far beyond its weight in conventional Jewish Law.
While the Reformed rabbis in Germany in the nineteenth century had to accommodate conservative elements in their community, at the height of the "Classical Reform" in the United States, halakhic considerations could be completely ignored and Holdheim's approach was embraced. In the 1930s onwards, Rabbi Solomon Freehof and his supporters reintroduced these elements, but they also regarded the Jewish Law as a system too rigid. Instead, they recommend that selected features be re-read and new observations shaped in piecemeal ways, such as spontaneous Messianic Age and Selection
The Reformation sought to accentuate and enlarge universalist traits within Judaism, turning them into a faith compatible with the ideals of the Enlightenment everywhere at that time. The tension between universalism and imperative to maintain uniqueness characterizes the movement throughout its entire history. His earliest supporters rejected Deism and the belief that all religions would unite into one, and then face the challenge of the Ethical movement and Unitarianism. In parallel, he sought to reduce all components of Judaism that were deemed too particular and selfish: the petition expressing hostility to Gentiles was torn down or cut, and practices often simplified to resemble the surrounding community. The "New Reformation" puts a new emphasis on Jewish special identity, regarding it as a better suiting of popular sentiments and the necessity of conservation.
One of the major expressions of that, the first clear doctrinal doctrine that has been formulated, is the idea of ​​universal Messianism. The belief in the redemption is beyond the traditional elements of its return to Zion and the restoration of the Temple and the sacrificial cult there, and turning into general expectations for salvation. This was then perfected when the idea of ​​a personal Messiah who would rule over Israel was officially abolished and replaced by the concept of the Messianic Age, universal alignment and perfection. The loss of faith in the advancement of humanity around World War II greatly shook the ideals, but retained as a teaching of the Reformation.
Another key example is the reinterpretation of Israeli elections. This movement maintains the idea of ​​God's Elect, but reorganizes it in a more universal way: it isolates and emphasizes the idea (already in traditional sources) that the mission of Israel spreads throughout the nation and teaches them divinely-the ethical monotheism inspired, bringing them closer to the Creator. One of the "Classical" extreme promoters of this approach, Rabbi David Einhorn, replaced the lamentation on the Ninth Av for a celebration, about the destruction of Jerusalem as the fulfillment of God's scheme to bring His Word, through His people, to the entire earth.. The selfish affirmations of Jewish exceptionalism are moderated, although the general notion of "the kingdom of priests and the holy people" is maintained. On the other hand, while embracing a less strict interpretation than the traditional one, the Reformation also adheres to this principle against those who seek to reject it. When secular thinkers such as Ahad Ha'am and Mordecai Kaplan conveyed the view of Judaism as a civilization, describing it as a culture created by the Jews, instead of the God-given faith that defined them, Reform theologians clearly rejected their position - despite being popular and even dominant among rank-and-file members. Like the Orthodox, they insist that the People of Israel were created by divine election alone, and there is simply that. The Pittsburgh Platform in 1999 and other official statements assert that "the Jews are bound to God by a B'rit covenant, eternal".
Soul and afterlife
As part of his philosophy, the Reformation anchored with reason in divine influence, received scientific criticism from the sacred texts and sought to adapt Judaism to the modern notion of rationalism. In addition to other traditional teachings rejected by its founders, they also deny the belief in the resurrection of the bodies of the dead in the future. It was seen as irrational and imported from the ancient middle eastern people. The notion of the afterlife is reduced only to the Eternity of the Soul. While founding thinkers, like Montefiore, all share this belief, the existence of the soul becomes more difficult to cling with the passage of time. In the 1980s, Borowitz could argue that the movement was not coherent to state on this issue. The various Reformist schools are still, albeit not always or strictly, supportive of the idea. The 1999 Pittsburgh Principle's Declaration, for example, uses a somewhat ambiguous formula "the spirit within us is eternal".
Along these lines, the concept of Reward and Punishment in the Forthcoming World is also abolished. The only form of retaliation perceived for the wicked, if any, is the sadness of their soul after death, and conversely, happiness is the sole praise of the righteous spirit. Angels and Heavenly Hosts are also considered to be foreign superstitious influences, especially from early Zoroastrian sources, and rejected.
Practice
Liturgy
The first and foremost areas in which the beliefs of the Reformation are expressed are the forms of prayer. From the beginning, the Reform of Judaism sought to harmonize the language of the petition with modern sensibilities and what the constituents actually believed. Jakob Josef Petuchowski, in his extensive survey of the Progressive liturgy, listed some of the key principles that defined it over the years and many of the transformations went through. The prayers are summarized, either by eliminating the repetition, opening the parts or reintroducing the ancient three-year cycle to read the Torah; vernacular segments were added alongside or in place of the Hebrew and Aramaic texts, to make sure the congregation understood the petitions they claimed; and some new prayers are structured to reflect the spirit of the changing times. But most of all, the liturgists seek to redefine the prayer books and ask them to express the theology of the movement. Blessings and sections referring to the coming of the Messiah, Returning to Zion, renewing the cult of sacrifice, the Resurrection of the Dead, Gifts and Punishments and openly particularism of the Israelites are replaced, rearranged or cut completely.
In the early stages, when Reformasi Judaism was more likely in a united community in Central Europe than an independent movement, its supporters had to practice moderation enough, lest they provoke conservative hostility. German prayer books often alienate more controversial issues into language translations, treat the original text with extreme caution and sometimes have problematic parts in small prints and are not translated. When institutionalized and free of such constraints, he is able to pursue a more radical path. In "liberal" English or English prayer books, a much larger vernacular component is added and the liturgy is drastically shortened, and petitions in dispute with denominational theology are abolished.
The "New Reformation", both in the United States and in Britain and the rest of the world, is characterized by a greater affinity for traditional forms and less emphasis on their harmonization with conventional beliefs. Simultaneously, it is also more inclusive and accommodating, even to the beliefs that were officially rejected by Reformed theologians, sometimes allowing different ritual alternatives for each congregation to choose from. Thus, prayers from the twentieth century onwards incorporate more Hebrew, and restore such elements as a blessing to philology. Deeper changes include the restoration of Gevorot prayer in 2007 Mishkan T'filah , with the option "give life to all/relive" the formula. CCAR states that this passage does not reflect the belief in the Resurrection, but the Jewish heritage. On the other hand, 1975 Gates of Prayer replaces "The Eternal One" for "God" in an English translation (though not in the original), a measure condemned by some Reformed rabbis as a step towards religious humanism. Skill
During the era of its formation, the Reformation was oriented towards a lower ceremonial obligation. In 1846, the Breslau rabbi's conference abolished the second day of the festival; During the same years, Berlin Reform sessions held prayers without blowing the Ram Horns, phylacteries, coats or headgear, and holding Sabbath services on Sundays. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the American "Reform Class" often imitated Berlin on a mass scale, with many communities performing the same style of prayer and having additional services on Sunday. The official rescheduling of Sabbath to Sunday was recommended by Kaufmann Kohler for some time, though at last he pulled it back. Divorce of religion was declared redundant and civilized was recognized as sufficient by the American Reformation in 1869, and in Germany in 1912; laws on food and personal purity, pastor prerogatives, marriage ordinances and so forth are abolished, and openly repealed by the Pittsburgh Platform 1885, which states that all ceremonial acts are binding only if they serve to enhance the religious experience. From 1890, converts were no longer obliged to be circumcised. A similar policy was pursued by the Jewish Religion Union Claude Montefiore, founded in England in 1902. The more moderate Vereinigung fÃÆ'¼r das Liberale Judentum in Germany, declared almost all voluntary personal obedience in the 1912 guidelines.
The "New Reformation" saw the formation and membership of giving greater emphasis on ceremonial aspects, after a sterile and minimalist approach had previously been criticized for offering little to engage in religion and encouraging apathy. Many rituals become popular again, often after being overhauled or reinterpreted, though as a matter of personal preference for the individual and not an authoritative obligation. Circumcision or Letting of Blood for converting and newborns became almost mandated in the 1980s; ablution for women who are menstruating gain great grassroots popularity at the turn of the century, and some synagogues build a special bathroom. New interest in dietary laws (though not necessarily in the strictest sense) also appeared in the same decade, as were phylacteries, prayer shawls, and head coverings. Reforms are still characterized by having the least publicly involved: for example, of those surveyed by Pew in 2013, only 34% of registered synagogue members (and only 17% of all affinity states) attend services once a month and more.
While defined primarily by their progress away from the ritual, proto-Reformation also pioneered the new. In the 1810s and 1820s, circles (Israel Jacobson, Eduard Kley, and others) gave rise to the movement introducing confirmatory ceremonies for boys and girls, in imitation of parallel Christian initiation rites. This soon spread beyond movement, although many of the more traditional inclines denied the name "confirmation". In the "New Reformation", Bar Mitzvah replaced it as part of re-traditionalization, but many young congregations in the United States still do one, often on the Sunday Celebration. Confirmation for girls eventually evolved into Bat Mitzvah, now popular among all but the Orthodox Jews.
Some branches of the Reformation, when subscribing to the differentiation between ritual and ethics, chose to maintain a degree of practical obedience, especially in areas where conservative Jewish majority should be accommodated. Most Liberal communities in Germany maintain food standards and the like in public spaces, both because of the moderation of the congregation and the threat of Orthodox separation. A similar pattern characterizes the Movement for Reform Judaism in Britain, which seeks to attract newcomers from the United Synagogue, or to the IMPJ in Israel.
Openness
His philosophy made Progressive Judaism, in all its variants, far more capable of embracing changes and new trends than any major denomination. It was the first to adopt innovations such as gender equality in religious life. In early 1846, the Breslau conference announced that women should enjoy identical obligations and prerogatives in worship and communal affairs, although this decision has little effect on practice. Lily Montagu, who served as the driving force behind British Liberal Judaism and WUPJ, was the first woman recorded in history to deliver a sermon in a synagogue in 1918, and set another precedent when she prayed two years later. Regina Jonas, who was ordained in 1935 by the head of the Vereinigung der liberalen Rabbiner Max Dienemann, was the earliest rabbi known to be formally titled. In 1972, Sally Priesand was ordained by Hebrew Union College, which made her first female rabbi in America ordained by a rabbinical seminary, and a female rabbi who was formally ordained in Jewish history, after Regina Jonas. The Reformation also pioneered the family seat, a setting that spread throughout American Jews but only applied in continental Europe after World War II. Egalitarianism in prayer became common in the WUPJ at the end of the 20th century.
Tolerance for LGBT and LGBT rabbinical ordination was also spearheaded by this movement. The relationship between a consenting adult was declared valid by the American Rabbis Conference in 1977, and the homosexual pastor was publicly acknowledged in the late 1980s. Same-sex marriage is approved at the end of the next decade. In 2015, the URJ adopted a Resolution on the Rights of Transgender and Gender Non-Conforming People, urging priests and synagogues to actively promote the tolerance and inclusion of such individuals.
The American Reformation, in particular, altering action to social and progressive causes becomes an essential part of religious commitment. From the second half of the 20th century, he used the old rabbi's notion of Tikkun Olam , "fixing the world", as a slogan in which constituents are encouraged to take part in various initiatives for the betterment of society.. The Reform Judaism Reform Center became an important lobby in the ministry of progressive causes such as the rights of women, minorities, LGBT, and the like. Tikkun Olam has been a major place for active participation for many affiliates, even leading critics to portray Reformasi negatively as little more than the way liberal Jews use to claim that their commitment to political beliefs is also a religion activities and show loyalty to Judaism. Dana Evan Kaplan states that "Tikkun Olam has incorporated only the socialist left elements.In truth, it is politics, essentially a reflection of the most radical component left of the Democratic Party platform, leading many to say that Reform Judaism is merely 'Democrats with Jewish holidays'. "Rabbi Jakob Josef Petuchowski complained that under the influence of secular Jews who form the bulk of the congregation since the 1950s, when the lack of religious affiliation was strongly condemned," the Reform of Judaism is now at the forefront of secularism in America... Very often indistinguishable from the ACLU... The fact is, along that line, it loses its religious moorings. "In Israel, the Center for Action is very active in the field of justice, often using litigation both in cases which concerns civil rights in general and the official status of the Reformation within the state, in particular.
Jewish Identity
While opposing the marriage of religious differences in principle, officials from the main Reformation rabbinist organization, the Conference of American Rabbis (CCAR), estimated in 2012 that about half of their rabbis took part in the ceremony. The need to overcome this phenomenon - 80% of all reformed Jews in the United States between 2000 and 2013 married - led to the recognition of patrilineal descendants: all children born to couples in which one member is Jewish, whether mother or father, accepted as a Jews on condition that they receive an appropriate education and commit themselves as such. On the contrary, the offspring of a Jewish mother alone are not accepted if they do not show closeness to faith. Jewish status is given unconditionally only to the children of two Jewish parents.
This decision was taken by British Liberal Judaism in the 1950s. The Jewish Union of North America for Reform Judaism (URJ) accepted it in 1983, and the British Movement for Reform of Judaism affirmed it in 2015. The various paths also adopted a policy of embracing mating and their spouses. The British Liberal offered a "blessing ceremony" if the child had to be raised by the Jews, and the MRJ allowed the pastor to participate in civil marriage celebrations, even though no one permitted the Jewish ceremony to be full of Chupah and the like. In the American Reform, 17% of households of religious households have converted couples, and 26% are unconverted. His policy on conversion and Jewish status caused WUPJ to conflict with a more traditional circle, and more and more adherents were not accepted as Jews by the Conservatives or Orthodox. Outside of North America and Britain, patrilineal descent is not accepted by most. As in other fields, small WUPJ affiliates are less independent and often have to deal with more conservative Jewish denominations in their country, such as vis-ÃÆ'-vis Orthodox rabbis in Israel or the European continent.
Organization Organization and demographics
The term "Reformation" was first applied institutionally - not as common, as in "reforms" - to the Berlin Reformgemeinde (Congregational Reform), founded in 1845. In spite of this, most of the German-oriented societies preferred to be more ambiguous " Liberals ", which are not exclusively attributed to Reform Judaism. It is more commonly referred to as the apathetic majority of religion among German Jews, as well as for all Orthodox rabbis (including rival School of Positive-History). The title of "Reform" becomes more common in the United States, where independent denominations under this name are fully identified with religious tendencies. However, Isaac Meyer Wise suggested in 1871 that "Progressive Judaism" was a better name. When the movement was instituted in Germany between 1898 and 1908, its leaders chose the "Liberals" as self-appointed, establishing the Vereinigung fÃÆ'¼r das Liberale Judentum. In 1902, Claude Montefiore termed the doctrine embraced by his new Jewish Religion as "Liberal Judaism", as well, though it is a more radical part of the spectrum in relation to that of Germany.
In 1926, the British Liberals, American Reforms and Liberals of Germany consolidated their movements around the world - united in the affirmation of principles such as progressive revelation, ethical supremacy over rituals and so forth - at meetings held in London. Originally carrying the temporary title of "Liberal Jewish International Conference", after the discussion between "Liberal", "Reform" and "Modern", it was named World Union for Progressive Judaism on 12 July, at the end of the vote. WUPJ forms further branches around the planet, or by the name of "Reform," "Liberal" and "Progressive". In 1945, the Related English Synagogues (Movement of Reform Judaism) also joined. In 1990, Reconstructionist Judaism entered the WUPJ as an observer. By moving the worldview of another religious world, he became the only non-Reform member. WUPJ claims to represent a total of at least 1.8 million people - these figures do not take into account the PEW survey of 2013, and rely on URJ estimates that are older than the total of 1.5 million alleged to have affinity, since updated to 2.2 million - both members both registered and non-affiliated synagogues that identify with them.
Worldwide, the movement is mainly centered in North America. The largest WUPJ constituents so far are Union for Reform Judaism (until 2003: Union of American Hebrew Congregations) in the United States and Canada. In 2013, the Pew Research Center survey calculated it represents about 35% of all 5.3 million Jews in the US, making it the single most Jewish religious group in the country. Steven M. Cohen concluded there were 756,000 adult Jewish synagogues - about a quarter of households had unconverted couples (according to the findings of 2001), added about 90,000 non-Jews and made a total of approximately 850,000 voters - and then 1,154,000 " Non-member updates "in the United States. There are also 30,000 in Canada. Based on this, URJ claims represent 2.2 million people. It has 846 trial in US and 27 in Canada, most of 1,170 affiliated with WUPJ that are not Reconstruction. His rabbinical arm is the American Rabbi Conference, with about 2,300 rabbinic members, mainly trained at Hebrew Union College. In 2015, URJ is led by President Rabbi Richard Jacobs, and CCAR is led by Rabbi Denise Eger.
The next measure, with wide margins, is the two UK WUPJ affiliates. In 2010, the Movement for Reform Judaism and Liberal Judaism each had 16,125 and 7,197 household members in 45 and 39 communities, or 19.4% and 8.7% of British Jews registered in the synagogue. Other member organizations are based in 40 countries around the world. They include progressive Guild Juden in Deutschland, which had about 4,500 members in 2010 and incorporated 25 trials, one in Austria; Nederlands Verbond voor Progressief Jodendom, with 3,500 affiliates in 10 communities; the 13 Liberal synagogues in France; The Israeli Movement for Progressive Reform and Judaism (5,000 members in 2000, 35 communities); Movement for Progressive Judaism (???????????????????) in the CIS and the Baltic States, with 61 affiliates in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus and several thousand regular constituents; and many others, which are smaller.
History
Beginning
With the emergence of Jewish emancipation and acculturation in Central Europe at the end of the 18th century, and the collapse of traditional patterns and norms, how Judaism should respond to changing circumstances to a hotter question. Radicals, second generation Berlin maskilim (Enlightened), such as Lazarus Bendavid and David FriedlÃÆ'¤nder, propose to reduce it slightly above Deism or let it disappear. An easier course is the reform of worship in the synagogue, making it more appealing to the Jewish public whose aesthetic and moral sense is in harmony with the Christian environment. The first to be considered to have carried out such reforms was the Amsterdam Ashkenazi congregation, Adath Jessurun. In 1796, imitating the local Sephardic custom, the prayer of the "Father of Compassion", pleading with God to take revenge on the Gentiles, was eliminated. Adath Jessurun used the traditional argument completely to legitimize his actions. The congregation was short-lived, but was often regarded as a harbinger by historians.
A relatively comprehensive program was adopted by Israel Jacobson, a philanthropist from the Kingdom of Westphalia. Faith and dogma were eroded for decades both by the criticism of the Enlightenment and apathy, but Jacobson himself did not care about it. He is interested in manners, believing that a shortage in service pushes young people away. Many of the aesthetic reforms he pioneered, such as ordinary ordinary sermons, rather than the ordinary Judeeo-Germany, would later be adopted by modernist orthodoxy. On July 17, 1810, he dedicated a synagogue in Seesen that employs organs and choirs during prayer and introduces several German liturgies. Today is celebrated by Reformation Judaism around the world as its base date. The Seesen temple - a fairly common term for prayererhouses at the time; the "temple" would then become, somewhat misleading (and not exclusively), identified with Reform institutions through association with the abolition of prayer for the Jerusalem Temple - closed in 1813. Jacobson moved to Berlin and established a similar, centered individual the same-minded. Although the prayer used in Berlin did introduce some deviations from the received text, it did so without the organizing principle. In 1818, Jacobson's acquaintance, Edward Kley, founded the Hamburg Temple. Here, the change in the rite is no longer eclectic and has severe dogmatic implications: the prayer for sacrificial restoration by the Messiah and Return to Zion is systematically eliminated. The Hamburg edition is considered the first comprehensive liturgy of the Reformation.
While Orthodox protests against Jacobson's initiative are lacking, dozens of rabbis across Europe unite to ban the Hamburg Temple. Its leaders seek to justify themselves on the basis of canonical sources, because they are still attached to the old mode of thinking. They had the compassionate support of a rabbi, Aaron Chorin of Arad (and he never even agreed to the cancellation of the Messianic doctrine). The great Orthodox reaction stopped the progress of the new trend, locking it into the port city for the next twenty years. Although many synagogues introduced mild aesthetic modifications because the acculturation process spread throughout Central Europe, synchronized with the destruction of traditional societies and the growing religious scarcity, they were carefully crafted to reduce conservative elements - although the latter often opposed they; vernacular sermons or secular education for rabbis are strongly opposed - and have no serious ideological tone. One of the first to adopt as such was the Hamburg Orthodox community itself under the newly appointed Rabbi Isaac Bernays. Isaac Noah Mannheimer of Vienna Stadttempel and Michael Sachs are much more strict but still traditional in Prague, both of which significantly alter the habit but completely avoid the dogmatic problem or openly harming the Jewish Law, regulating the speed for much of Europe.
An isolated step, but much more radical in the same direction that Hamburg took across the ocean in 1824. The younger members of the Charleston congregation "Beth Elohim" were dissatisfied with the present conditions and demanded change. Led by Isaac Harby and others, they formed their own prayer group, the "Reformed Israel Society". Apart from very aesthetic things, such as having sermon and synagogical matters conveyed in English, not Central Spanish (as is common among the Western Sephardim), they have almost all their liturgies only in ordinary language, in distant proportions larger than the Hamburg ritual. And most of all, they feel little attachment to traditional Messianic doctrine and have a clear, heterodox religious understanding. In their new prayer book, Harby writers Abram MoÃÆ'¯se and David Nunes Carvalho completely set aside the plea for the restoration of the Jerusalem Temple; during his inaugural address on 21 November 1825, Harby declared their home country their only Zion, not "some rocky desert", and described the old rabbis as "Fabulis and Sofis... Who torture the simplest doctrine of Law into monstrous and unexpected conclusions ". The institution was short-lived, and they rejoined Beth Elohim in 1833. As in Germany, reformers were lay people, operating in a country with a small rabbinical presence.
Consolidation on German soil
In the 1820s and 1830s, philosophers like Solomon Steinheim imported German idealism into Jewish religious discourse, trying to draw from the ways it used to reconcile Christian faith and modern sensibilities. But that is the critical and scientific Judaism of Judaism ( Wissenschaft des Judentums ) which is the focus of the controversy. Its supporters are wandering whether and for that level should be applied to contemporary suffering. Opinions range from the highly orthodox Azriel Hildesheimer, who subjected the research to the sanctity of the predetermined text and refused to allow him practical implications for the method received; through the Positive-Historical Zelcharias Frankel, which does not deny the role of Wissenschaft, but only respects tradition, and opposes the analysis of the Pentateuch; and to Abraham Geiger, who rejected any restrictions on objective research or application. He is considered the founding father of Reform Judaism.
Geiger writes that at the age of seventeen, he learned that the late Tannaim and Amoraim imposed a subjective interpretation of the Oral Torah, attempting to spread its revolutionary potential by linking it to the biblical text. Believing that Judaism is stale and must be radically changed if it is to survive in modernity, it finds little use in the Halakha legal procedure, arguing that hard-line rabbis often indicate that they will not accept major innovations. His efforts into higher criticism led him to regard the Pentateuch as a reflection of a power struggle between the Pharisees on the one hand, and the Saducees who had their own pre-Mishnaic Halakha. Having concluded that the belief in an unbroken tradition back to Sinai or Torah dictated by the divine is untenable, he begins to articulate progressive revelatory theology, presenting the Pharisees as reformers who revolutionized Saduce-dominated religion. Another model is the prophets, whose morals and ethics are the only true core of permanent Judaism. He is not alone: ​​Solomon Formstecher argues that Revelation is God's influence on the human psyche, rather than formulated in law; Aaron Bernstein was apparently the first to deny the holiness inherent in any text when he wrote in 1844 that, "The Pentateuch is not a chapter of the revelation of God, it is a testimony to inspiration awareness is in our ancestors. "Many others share similar beliefs.
In 1837, Geiger held a similarly minded conference of young rabbis in Wiesbaden. He told the assembled that "the Talmud must go". In 1841, the Hamburg Temple issued a second edition of the prayer book, the first Reformation liturgy since its predecessor in 1818. The Orthodox response was weak and quickly lost. Most rabbinic writings in Germany are now manned by university graduates who are vulnerable to rationalistic ideas, which also pervade liberal Protestants led by such figures as Leberecht Uhlich. They form the backbone of the newborn Reformation of rabbinate. Geiger intervened in the controversy of the Second Hamburg Temple not only to defend prayer prayers against the Orthodox, but also to denounce it, stating the time especially aesthetic and un-systematic reforms have passed. In 1842, the power of progressive forces was revived: when Rabi Solomon Tiktin's superior from Geiger sought to dismiss him from evangelical office in Breslau, 15 of the 17 rabbis consulted by the council expressed his unorthodox views in line with his post. He alone distinguishes between principled attitude and quotidian behavior. Believing it can be done only with caution, he is in practice and remains personally observant.
Secondly after Geiger, Rabbi Samuel Holdheim distinguished himself as a supporter of radical change. While the former emphasizes continuity with the past, and portrays Judaism as an entity gradually adopting and discarding elements all the time, Holdheim gives the condition that is now the highest status, sharply dividing the universalist core from all other aspects that can be discarded endlessly. Stating that the old law loses their control to Jews as they are and rabbis can only act as a guide to voluntary obedience, the principle is that the concept of "Land Law is the Law" is total. He states mixed marriages are permissible - almost the only Reform rabbi who did so in history; his contemporaries and subsequent generations opposed this - because the Talmud's ban on carrying it out on the Sabbath, unlike offering sacrifices and other acts, for him was a sufficient demonstration that they were not a category of sanctified obligation (issurim ) but to the civilian ( stuck ), where the Land Law is applied. Another measure he offered, rejected almost unanimously by his colleagues in 1846, was the institution of the "Second Sabbath" on Sunday, which was modeled on the Second Easter, as most people defil a day of rest.
Pressures from the VormÃÆ'¤rz era are on the rise. In 1842, a group of radical laypeople determined to achieve full acceptance into society was established in Frankfurt, "Friends of the Reformation". They abolished circumcision and claimed that the Talmud is no longer binding. In response to a request from Frankfurt, almost all rabbis in Germany, even Holdheim, declared circumcision mandatory. Similar groups have emerged in Breslau and Berlin. These developments, and the need to bring uniformity to practical reforms are carried out piecemeal in various communities, motivating Geiger and his like-minded supporters in action. Between 1844 and 1846, they held three rabbin assemblies, in Braunschweig, Frankfurt am Main and Breslau respectively. They were intended to apply proposals from Aaron Chorin and others to the new Sanhedrin , created in 1826, which could assess and eliminate ancient edicts and restrictions. A total of forty-two people attended three meetings, including moderate and conservative, all quite young, usually in their thirties.
The conferences make some extensive concrete steps, although they generally state that the old mechanism of religious interpretation is outdated. The first, held on June 12-19, 1844, abolished the ill-fated Nidrei Colors and Jewish oath, still administered by the rabbis, and formed a committee to determine "to what extent the Messianic ideal should be mentioned in prayer". Repeating the response from the 1806 Paris Grand Sanhedrin to Napoleon, it stated that mixed marriage was allowed as long as children could be brought up by Jews; this step effectively prohibits such unions without offending Christians, since no country in Germany permits a mixed-religion couple to have non-Christian education for offspring. However, it angered the critics. A small group of traditionalists was also present, losing all the votes. On the opposite side are the sympathizers Holdheim, who declared on June 17 that "science has shown that the Talmud has no authority either from a dogmatic or practical perspective... People of the Supreme Council have only jurisdiction for their time We have the same power , when we express our passion. "Majorities are led by Geiger and Ludwig Philippson, and are attracted to historical moderation and continuity.
Strong Orthodox response is not surprising. Moshe Schick wondered, "why we will not reveal the truth about the punishment of these people... because they have blasphemed the Divinity of the Law, they are not Israelites and are equal to Gentiles". But they also succeeded in more moderate progressive hostility. Both S. L. Rapoport and Zecharias Frankel strongly condemn Braunschweig. Other dissatisfied parties are Christian missionaries, who fear the Reformation of two notes: it can stem the tide of conversion, and loosening the Jewish piety for the semi-secular liberal religion they oppose among Christians as well, reducing the possibility they will ever accept new dogma completely.
Frankel was sure to attend the next one, held in Frankfurt on July 15-28, 1845, after many pleas. But he came out after issuing a resolution that there was "subjective, but no purpose, an argument for maintaining the Hebrew in the liturgy". Although this is a trivial statement, based on canonical sources, it considers it a deliberate violation of tradition. The 1840s, Meyer's commentary, saw the "Reform movement crystallize both intellectually and institutionally," narrowing from "reformers (in the common sense)" who wanted to modernize Judaism to some degree or another (including Frankel and Neo-Orthodox Samson Raphael Hirsch) "a broad stream that embraces all opponents of the premodern status quo", to "a more clearly marked stream that rejects not only the ghetto religious mentality but also modernist orthodoxy that changes form but not substance". After his resignation, the conference adopted another key doctrine that was opposed by Frankel in the second Hamburg Temple dispute in 1842; stated that "today, Messianic beliefs can only be accepted as a hope for the liberation of mankind in the era of peace and brotherhood", it officially perpetuates the notion of a future Messianic era, rather than personal redemption. Rabbi David Einhorn explains the further idea, that the Mission to bring ethical monotheism to everyone, commented that, "The exile was once considered a disaster, but it is progress.As Israel approached its true destiny, with purity replacing blood sacrifice, it was spreading the Word of God to the four corners of the earth. "
The last meeting, held in Breslau (13-24 July 1846), was the least dangerous. The Sabbath, extensively tainted by the majority of German Jews, has been discussed. Participants debated whether the convenience to civil servants should be enforced, but could not agree and issued a general statement about his sanctity. Holdheim surprised people who gathered when he proposed his "Second Sabbath" scheme, even surprising radical wings, and his movements were simply denied. They voted to eliminate the Second Day of the Festival, noting that it was an irrelevant and almost never observed rabbinic procedure.
While raising protests from Orthodox, Frankfurt and Breslau also angered radical laymen, who considered them too agreeable. In March 1845, a small group formed a semi-independent session in Berlin, Reformgemeinde. They invited Holdheim to serve as their rabbi, although he often fell out with a board led by Sigismund Stern. They instituted prayers that are drastically summarized in German and allow the removal of most aspects of ritual.
Geiger and most of the conference attendees are much more moderate. While Holdheim is managed in a homogeneous group, they must serve in a unified community. Although practice and liturgy have been modified, it is clearly under control. Except for Berlin, where the term "Reform" was first used as an adjective, the rest referred to themselves as "Liberals". The next two rabbinical conferences, in 1869 and 1871 in Leipzig and Augsburg, were marked with caution. Their only result was to pass the Loosening of the Shoe ceremony through prenuptial agreements and the founding of the Hochschule fÃÆ'¼r die Wissenschaft des Judentums, although officially non-denominational, as a rabbinical seminary. While common, Michael Meyer notes, the term "Liberal Jews" is more associated with political persuasion than religious beliefs. The general Jewish community in Germany showed little interest, especially after the 1876 law in which the communal affiliation and paying the parish tax were no longer mandatory.
In addition, the Reformation had virtually no influence in other parts of the continent. The radical lay people appeared in Hungary during the Revolution of 1848 but soon disbanded. Only in Germany, Steven M. Lowenstein's comment, does the extinction of old Jewish community life lead to the creation of a new positive religious ideology that advocates principled change. In Western and Central Europe, personal obedience disappears, but the public is not interested in bridging the gap between them and official faith. Secular education for pastors became mandated by the middle of the century, and yeshivas were all closed for lack of applicants, replaced by modern seminaries; an academically trained rabbinate, whether it affirms basically a traditional or liberal doctrine and is influenced by Wissenschaft, has virtually no harm to anything other than aesthetic modification and de facto tolerance to the apathy of the laity. Further east, amongst the unfilled and undesirable Jewish masses in Poland, Romania and Russia, the stimulants that gave rise to modernist Reformation or Orthodoxy were almost unheard of. Some wealthy and Westernized Jews in cities like Odessa or Warsaw build a modern synagogue where mild aesthetic reforms, such as vernacular preaching or holding a wedding canopy indoors, rather than under the sky, are introduced. Considered as a bold innovative in their environment, this has long been considered trivial even by the most Orthodox in Germany, Bohemia or Moravia. In the east, the late destruction of old customs does not lead to religious remodification, but to formulate the secular conception of the Jews, especially the nationalistic ones.
In 1840, some British Jews formed the West London Jewish British Synagogue, led by Rev. David Woolf Marks. While the title "Reformation" is sometimes applied to them, their approach is described as "neo-Karaite", and is completely opposite to continental development. Only a century later they and other synagogues embraced land ideas and established the British Movement for Reform Judaism.
America and the Classical Reform
In Charleston, a former member of the Reformed Society gained influence over the affairs of Beth Elohim . In 1836, Gustavus Poznanski was appointed minister. Originally traditional, but around 1841, he removed the Resurrection of the Dead and abolished the second day of the festival, five years before the same thing was done at the Breslau conference.
In addition, the American Reform Movement is primarily a direct German import. In 1842, the Har Sinai Assembly was founded by German-Jewish immigrants in Baltimore. Adopting the Hamburg rite, it was the first synagogue established as a Reformed on the continent. In the new land, there is no communal structure mandated by the state, or strong conservative elements among the newcomers. While the first generation is still somewhat traditional, their Americanized children are attracted to new religious expressions. The Reformation quickly spread even before the Civil War. While motivated by the conditions of the immigrant community, in terms of doctrine, writes Michael Meyer, "However great the response to the social context in particular, its basic principles are those proposed by Geiger and other German Reformers - progressive revelations, historical-critical approaches, the centrality of the literature of the Prophet. "
Rabbinites are almost exclusively transplanted - Rabbis Samuel Hirsch, Samuel Adler, Gustav Gottheil, Kaufmann Kohler, and others all play a role both in Germany and across oceans - and are led by two individuals: Radical rabbi David Einhorn, who participated in 1844-1846 conferences and strongly influenced by Holdheim (though completely rejecting mixed marriages), and moderate pragmatic Isaac Meyer Wise, who when sharing a deep heterodox view is more of an organizer than a thinker. Wise is different from the others, arriving early in 1846 and lacking a lot of formal education. He is a small ideological consistency, often compromised.
Simply indiscriminate, Wise instituted a major innovation when introducing a family bench in 1851, after the Albany congregation bought a local church building and maintained a sitting arrangement. Although gradually adopted even by many Orthodox Jews in America, and remained so well into the 20th century, the same was not applied in Germany until after World War II. Wise tried to reach consensus with the traditionalist leader Rabbi Isaac Leeser to forge single and unified American Judaism. In 1855, Cleveland Synod, at first he agreed to Leeser, but soon returned after the others left. The angry Leeser denies any relationship with him. But the harshest criticism is Einhorn, who arrived from Europe that same year. Demanding a clear position, he led a radical camp when the Reformation turned into a different stream.
On 3-6 November 1869, the two and their followers met in Philadelphia. Described by Meyer as the "declaration of independence" of the American Reformation, they expressed their commitment to the principles already formulated in Germany: the privileges of the priesthood, the belief in the Resurrection and the personal Messiah were rejected. Practical size, far-reaching, not institutionalized in the home country until 1910, is the reception of civil marriage and divorce. A Get is no longer required. In 1873, Wise founded the United States of America's Hebrew Congregation (since 2003, Union for Reform Judaism), a denominational body. In 1875, he founded the rabbinical seminary of the movement, Hebrew Union College, in Cincinnati, Ohio. He and Einhorn also quarreled in the liturgical issues, each issuing his own prayer book, Minhag America (Ritus Amerika) and Olat Tamid (Ordinary Waste Offering), respectively they expect to make standard problems. Finally, the United Nations Prayer Book was adopted in 1895. The movement spread rapidly: in 1860, as it began to rise, there were several Reformed synagogues and 200 Orthodox in the United States. In 1880, only a handful of 275 were not affiliated with it.
In 1885, Reform Judaism in America was confronted by challenges from both sides. To the left, Felix Adler and his Ethical movement rejected the need for Jews to exist as different groups. To the right, the newly arrived Rabbi Alexander Kohut, a follower of Zacharias Frankel, cursed him for abandoning traditional Judaism. Einhorn's son-in-law and leader of the ideology, Rabbi Kaufmann Kohler, invited the leading rabbis to formulate an answer. Eight of the Pittsburgh Platform clauses were proclaimed on November 19. He adds almost nothing new to the teachings of the Reformation, but rather explains it, stating clearly that, "Today, we accept as mere moral law, and retain only ceremonies such as elevating and sanctifying our lives." The platform was never officially ratified by UAHC or HUC, and many of their members even tried to separate themselves from it, fearing that its radical tone would hinder potential allies. This does motivate a handful of conservatives to stop cooperation with the movement and withdraw their constituents from UAHC. They joined Kohut and Sabato Morais in founding the American Jewish Theological Seminary. It unifies all non-Reform currents in this country and will gradually evolve into the locus of Conservative Judaism.
The Pittsburgh platform is regarded as a document that defines the classified and rational "Classical Reformation", which was dominant from the 1860s to the 1930s. At its peak, forty congregations adopted the Sunday Sabbath and the UAHC community had service without traditional elements in a manner seen in Europe only in Berlin Reformgemeinde. In 1889, Wise founded the Conference of American Rabbis (CCAR), a denominational rabbinic council.
However, the changes appear on the horizon. From 1881 to 1924, more than 2,400,000 immigrants from Eastern Europe drastically transformed American Jews, raising them tenfold. 40,000 members of the Reformation congregation became a small minority overnight
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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